In the punto tirato, the material threads were pulled or gathered together in “bundles”.

 Needle lace took its final form during the16th century as the change can be noticed in Italian patterns of the time - sometimes published in France -, the oldest dating back to Francois 1^st. The first lace works created without any support appeared later, in the form of “bordure a dents “(-literally translated as teethed edges- where the French word for lace: “dentelle” finds its origin).

All these elements seem to point towards Italy, particularly Venice, as the cradle of this delicate art form. The constitutive elements and the technique had been borrowed from embroiderers, but in 1580, lace making became a trade in and of itself.

 Sample of Punto Tagliato

  Eventually, lace making centers were created in Europe. Venice and Alencon specialized in needle lace making, while bobbin lace was been produced in Belgium and the Northern France (Brussels, Anvers, Bruges, Valenciennes), In Italy (Milan) in East Germany (Annaberg, Schneeberg), in counties of central England, and also in the town of Tonder in Denmark.  During the 17^th and 18^th centuries that lace making reached its climax, before starting a decline due mainly to the industrial evolution.

From luxury product to popular use

  Until the 19^th century, lace was very expensive, not only because of its complex manufacturing process requiring a very fine linen thread, but also because of the very high cost of customs and transportation. For laces requiring metallic threads, the price of the precious metals was also significant.

  Authorities attempted several times to restrain the extravagance of lace enthusiasts by setting down ordinances - the famous “sumptuous laws”

   As a dress code, it tried to prevent the investment of large sums of money, by individuals, into unproductive luxury goods. By the same token they wanted to avoid trade with foreign manufacturers, while encouraging national production. To achieve these goals, imports were heavily taxed and sometimes forbidden. Nonetheless, high society could not do without these symbols of wealth and refinement and very often nobles and merchants alike succeeded in bypassing regulations! Henry III for example, used 4,000 yards of lace for one outfit, as many husbands outdid their wives in adorning themselves.

  Lace was also very popular with thieves and ladies always traveled with their backs to the drivers since robbers would slash the back of the coach to steal their lacey garments. It was just as valuable as their jewels!

  Laces ornamented clothing, ecclesiastical vestments, military suits, under garments and accessories. In the well to do circles it was also used in the home as decorative accents or bedding ornaments. The creation of large pieces was not only slow and expensive but the technique used was also very complicated.  Clothing and bedding made entirely of lace were very rare until the appearance of the tulle machines. One of the famous exceptions is the bed spread of the archducal couple Albert and Isabelle of Habsburg who received it as a wedding present in 1599. It is preserved today in the royal Museum of Art and History in Brussels. The dresses of the empresses Mary-Theresa of Austria (1717-1780) and Mary-Louise (1791-1847), wife of Napoleon I are other famous examples.

                                      Marie Theresa of Austria                                     by Martin de Meytens         

Sample of tulle lace

       Inventories, lists made of dowries and wills, allowed anyone to know or at least accurately guess a person’s former possessions. Thus, we know that one of Louis XIII courtier acquired a “fraise” (lacey, fancy collar) equal in value to 25 acres of excellent vineyards, and that one of the hand-held handkerchiefs was worth two hundred ducats during the XVII century (the value of 700 grams of gold!). As any other items, lace followed the dictates of fashion. Lace with much open-work and deep edges was worn during the Renaissance era.

   In the 17^th century, lace with straight edges came into style. Bonnets and caps would never be crafted without delicate trimmings. Collars that previously decorated tips of shirts were now boldly detached from the clothing and crafted in large tubular shape (fraise) or erected in the Medicis style. Shirts were adorned with Steinkerke ties, and, in the 18th century, with jabots.

                                             These three portraits are from Frans  Pourbus, the Younger

       The first is that of a French man, the second of Isabella Clara Eugenia of Austria (fraise collar), and the last of
         Marie of Medicis.

   Two hundred years later, following the elaborate aprons of the 17th century, fans and umbrellas festooned with lace made their appearance.

   The evolution of these styles is known to us only because of the innumerable painters of the time. These very talented artists   were able to reproduce laces with meticulous exactitude. Among them, most renowned were:

                                                        Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675)

                                                    Anthonie Van Dyck (1599-1641),  and

Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757) an Italian artist and a very experienced fashion designer.

   Lace was especially popular for decorating accessories, such as bonnets or collars because it was possible to unstitch the lace and modernize their look to follow the fashion’s trends. Items that we possess today, however, are mostly baptismal gowns, bridal veils and other such heirlooms, piously preserved from generation to generation.

   Eventually during the 18th century, the rich bourgeoisie (high society) would adorn their ball gowns, dress suits, lingerie and linens with as much lace as they could afford. In the less fortunate circles, lace was not less appreciated: coarser lace of “fake lace” made by crocheting or knitting was used instead. Little by little, lace was an integral part of everyday dress for the average classes and the formal apparel of richer peasants.

  Lace is so common today that it is difficult to conceive its former value. Besides the machine made lace available to the general public and the traditional hand-crafted lace, lace making is originating a new form of artistic expression. The London, Brussels, Bruges, and Hamburg museums to name a select few, organize permanent or temporary exhibits of old and contemporary lace.

The manufacturing conditions.

  Originally, women of different social classes created the lacey trimmings of their ball gowns at home. With the help of pattern books, ladies of the aristocracy devoted themselves to this new pastime. We know that Catherine of Medicis practiced the needle-arts, and that she taught her daughter - in - law Marry Stuart queen of the Scots.

  In the 17th century the demand for lace had increased considerably. Because of the difficulty of producing these luxurious items, their creation became a professional trade. Nuns, assisted by orphans and other needy people, as well as housewives, worked for a salary, regulated by many uncertain factors:  fashion trends, quick adaptation to the new styles, degree of originality and complexity of the lace design. Competition dictated prices, as did the ability of the merchant to sell his goods. Working conditions were often exhausting and working close to a fire was out of the question, for the smoke would spoil the silk threads. Many women spent the winter months working in the barns, relying of the animal’s warmth to fend off the cold.

  The factories had two different methods of producing lace. In one method, common in the 17^th century, management divided up the work between home based employees who did the majority of the work and factory workers who finished the pieces off. Another popular method involved having all work done in the factory. This allowed regrouping and overseeing of the workers, particularly of the apprentices. During the19th century, merchants and manufacturers, of which Ernest Lefebure was the most famous representative, controlled the market.  His prestigious “House of Bayeux ” produced  both bobbin and needle lace. Even when the workers used gold, silver or expensive linen threads, the cost of the material was only a part of the final product’s sale price. This was determined by the employee’s salary, the profit margin kept by the merchant, transportation costs, taxes and customs fees.

  Lace manufacturers always hired professional designers who charged quite a bit for their services. To keep their expenses low, manufacturers deducted the cost of the material from the lace-maker’s salaries. They were paid in cash but the value of the finished goods was always estimated by the employer! Needless to say these estimates were far from fair. Unlike the weavers or embroiderers, lace makers had no unions at the time and their living conditions were often difficult especially towards the end of the 18th century.

The merchant assumed financial responsibility for all bad payments, changes in fashion trends, wars and political instability in all its forms. A luxury product par excellence, lace always reflected political fluctuations. The Revolution of 1789 paralyzed France’s lace production. Lace had always been synonymous with aristocratic elegance, and after the death of Marie Antoinette, and her flamboyant court, wearing lace had become very unpopular and even dangerous. Later on, Napoleon tried to revive it by supporting the lace making centers of Alencon and Brussels.    Between 1830 and 1870 the lace making industry flourished, and the success of industrialization triggered an outburst by the lace makers

The desperate fight that started took sometimes the shape of true riots. In England a movement called the Luddites, was created in order to fight industrialization, which they held responsible for unemployment and decrease in production quality. At the beginning of the 19th century, they even tried to destroy lace making equipment. To remedy this sad situation, Parliament imposed a death penalty for the destruction of equipment. Modernization worsened the situation to the point where workers lowered their own salaries in a last attempt to save their jobs. During the 19th century the living conditions of the lace makers chung. The work was divided up and spread out over very long working hours.

   Most of the work was done in workshops and the employees would never have a chance to see their finished product. Labor organizations totally subjected the workers to their employer. Often they were poorly paid, and because of painful work conditions they developed many health problems related to their profession, like weak eyesight and deformation of the spine essential.

Evolution of man power

   For us It is difficult to imagine the economical importance of lace making from the 17th to the 19th century. Today the collective number of employees of Vorarlberg in Austria, Saint-Gall in Switzerland, North of France and the center of England, added to the Asian workers, is nothing compared to the amount of man power used for lace making during that era.

   Lace workers and the manufacturers formed the core of the entire market and many other professions relied on their success, such as:  suppliers and annexed industries, needle and thread manufacturers, bobbin turners, finishing and distributing professionals, lingerie manufacturers, fashion and lace merchants.

   During the 17^th century, France had a total of 240.000 lace makers for a population of 35 millions, while England boasted 3545 machines and 18.400 workers, in the central part of the country.In the middle of the 19^th century, the world’s total number of lace workers was estimated 535.000. Sadly that number started decreasing when modern equipment replaced those devoted workers.

   Today, the 5000 German workers of Annaberg hold the record, while France had only 200 or 300 left in 1974, their average age being 75! Manual production is now common in Asian countries, were there is an abundance of inexpensive lace. Unable to compete with the low salaries of their eastern colleagues, European lace makers specialize in others markets, like tourism, art, and luxury items. The number of people working on bobbin lace items and needle lace is on the increase.  Very highly priced, these items are considered objects of art, unique and worthy of being in expositions

Precocious Apprenticeship

   Lace making was learned from a young age at home, sometimes as early as 5 years old This was especially the lot of young girls, who’s only educational goals were to learn the art of bobbin or needle lace. Miniature pillows and squares were as common as mini irons in the play rooms. By the middle of the 19th century specialized institutions were starting to take over the task

   In the orphanages administrated by the state of the church, this was the way the young boarders would pay for their keep. Child labor was very common, especially in England. In Switzerland, children would add to the family income by working at home on embroidery machines, bus as in other sectors of the economy, work conditions caused various diseases and a precocious mortality.

   In the 19 century, in an attempt to help workers compete with industrialization, State school were educating and forming professors while professional designers were making their debuts.

    Mandatory education until the age of 12, industrialization and general lack of interest for a difficult and poorly paid profession were the main factors for the decline of lace production at the end of the century. Even when the French government tried to stimulate lace making education, it could not prevent the last blow given to this dying art by the First World War.

   A few schools survived these trials,in Belgium, England and  notably in France at  Alencon, Valenciennes, Bailleul and Au Puy where a National Museum was opened next to the  state factories. The public started showing interest again for this dying art in the 1970’s, as lace making classes became very popular in Europe and the US.

Lace and culture

  It is worth noticing that lace did not only play a role in the economy and the world of fashion, it is also part of our cultural inheritance and had quite an influence on the world of art.

  Our knowledge about the history of lace comes from   the great painters and the works. It is fascinating to study for example the portraits of Queen Elizabeth I of England  who insisted that her precious stones, the embroideries and laces On her dresses be true-to-life .

  Very talented sculptors knew equally well how to express onto rigid materials the light and flowing look of lace adoring their models apparel. In the musical world, lace has  inspired composers as different as Johann Strauss (The queen’s lace handkerchief) and Henry Purcell. Literature did not remain insensitive to the charms of these delicate creations. Shakespeare (1564-1616) who was a native of central England learned to know and appreciate them.  To protest against Louis the 14 ban of foreign lace imports Miss De la Trousse wrote an entire pamphlet entitled “Revolt of the Passements”, Where she describes in detail the laces of her era. In Germany, Louise Otto-Peters( 1819-1895) held  with her pen a stubborn fight in defense of the miserable Erzgebirge lace makers                                                                                                                      

   But it is with no doubt her fellow countryman Rainer Maria Rilke who captured with the most sensitivity the aerial nature of works of lace.

   Innumerable and from many countries were the anonymous testimonies of the lace makers song. They were sung following the rhythm of the crossing of the spindles, mentioning their local patron Saints. Saint Nicolas for Lille, Saint Anne in Bruges, etc…Holidays were even created to honor their protectors. Very few of these holidays have made it down to us.

   And finally postal services of many countries represent sometimes on their stamps, apparel of historical figures dressed in lace or celebrate directly its glory like the famous
lacemakerVermeer.

(Paris 1989,  volume 8 Source “ Around the thread, the encyclopedia of the Art of Textiles” Bonnier editions, )

   Lace has experienced a renaissance, coming down from grandma’s attic or found inside an antique shop, it is now a collectible, tinted with the colors and riches of history. It is part of our everyday life, from our linens to our guard robe, romancing our homes and rewarding not only the eye, but also the sense of touch.

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